1.Рortents and Signs of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ

They asked: «Tell us, when will these things be, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?» (Matthew 24:3; "What will be the sign of Your return, and when will the end of the world come?" trans. [Ref. 26]; "What sign will indicate Your return and the end of the present world?" trans. [Ref. 37]).

In Matthew 24:3 and 24:30, the same Greek word σημεῖον (sēmeion) is used. It means "sign," "mark," or "token." In the New Testament, it denotes not merely an identifying sign but also a sign through which God reveals His purposes or confirms His intervention in history. For this reason, throughout this article the term sēmeion will generally be rendered as "sign," thereby preserving the consistency of biblical terminology.     

In answer to the first question—concerning the time of the destruction of Beit Adonai and the capital—the Teacher did not reveal the exact date. Nevertheless, He pointed to the principal historical events and "made known to them all the signs of His coming" [Ref. 4, p. 51]. "But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near" ("the time of its destruction is near," trans. [Refs. 37, 38]) 

"They will fall by the edge of the sword and be led captive among all nations (into various countries), and Jerusalem will be trampled underfoot by the Gentiles, until (that is, until the time when) the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled" (Luke 21:20–24; "until their time has come to an end," trans. [Refs. 35, 38]).  

The author associates the completion of this part of the prophecy (Luke 21:24) with Jerusalem's becoming the one and indivisible capital of the State of Israel. This highly significant prediction of the Lord Jesus Christ contains at least three successive elements, or more precisely, three distinct parts: (1) the fall of Jerusalem; (2) the dispersion of the Jewish people among the nations; and (3) the completion of "the times of the Gentiles." This internal structure of the prophecy explains why its fulfillment extends over a prolonged period of history.   

Likewise, the second component of Jesus' prophecy concerning the national catastrophe of the Jewish people was fulfilled:"They will be led captive among all nations" (Luke 21:24b; "they will be taken as captives to other nations," trans. [Ref. 26]).

The third part of Christ's prediction was fulfilled only in 1980, when Jerusalem was proclaimed the one and indivisible capital of the State of Israel (Fig. 1). Since political control over the city had returned to the Jewish people, this may be understood as the prophetic sign marking the completion of "the times of the Gentiles."

3. The Sign of His Coming

Answering the disciples' second question, «Tell us, when will these things be, and what will be the sign of your coming ('How will we know about Your return and the end of this world?' trans. [Ref. 35]) and of the end of the age?» (Matthew 24:3), the Teacher described in detail the events that would precede the close of the present age and His return (Matthew 24; Mark 13; Luke 17; 21).

The appearance of the Savior will be preceded by numerous events, including wars, famines, epidemics, earthquakes, the persecution of Christians, the increase of wickedness, mutual hatred, the rise of false prophets, and the growing cold of love (Matthew 24:6–12).

The signs of «the end of the age» listed by Christ have been observable for almost two thousand years since Christ's ascension, indeed throughout nearly every period of history. For this reason, the Second Coming was expected by the church in Thessalonica in the A.D. 40s, by countless Christians around the year 1000, by the followers of one pseudo-Christian sect in 1914, and by some believers in 1943, 1999, and 2000.

None of these expectations was fulfilled. The events listed above are not the Sign (σημεῖον) about which the disciples were asking. Rather, they characterize the entire period between Christ's ascension and His return. As the Lord Himself said, «All these are but the beginning of the birth pains.» (Matthew 24:8). They mark the beginning, not the completion, of these events.

The disciples were not asking about a collection of many different signs. Their question is expressed in the singular: «What will be the sign (σημεῖον) ...?» (Matthew 24:3; Mark 13:4; Luke 21:7).  Therefore, they expected to hear about one specific sign that would precede the end of the age. To this final question the Lord gave a direct answer:  

«And this gospel of the kingdom will be proclaimed ('The Good News of the Kingdom will be proclaimed,' trans. [Ref. 37]) throughout the whole world as a testimony ('so that all peoples may hear,' trans. [Ref. 35]) to all nations, and then the end will come.» (Matthew 24:14). This process continues to the present day and will reach its climax before the beginning of the Great Tribulation.  

Clearly, neither in the year 1000, nor in 2000, nor at the beginning of the twenty-first century had the Good News of the coming Kingdom yet reached all the inhabitants of the earth. Therefore, there was no basis for expecting the Second Coming at those times. 

«The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance.» (2 Peter 3:9)

Thus, one characteristic feature of the collapse of today's morally decayed civilization is the worldwide proclamation of the Good News of the coming Messianic Kingdom – the message being proclaimed to all nations throughout the entire world. This development is so evident that some believers (for example, Ref. 8) regard the preaching itself as the definitive sign of Christ's return.

However, such an interpretation fails to take into account the sequence of Christ's answer. The worldwide proclamation of the gospel is indeed a necessary prerequisite for the approach of the end, but it is not the Sign (σημεῖον) about which the disciples were asking and to which Christ turns in the following verses.

4. The Sign in Heaven

After describing the events of the last days (Matthew 24:4–13) and the necessary prerequisite for the end (v. 14), Jesus turns to the description of the Sign of His coming. He speaks of a mysterious sign in heaven and of the awesome events that will follow it (Luke 17:26–30).

«Then will appear the Sign of the Son of Man in heaven, and then all the tribes (peoples) of the earth will mourn ("will weep in fear and confusion," trans. [Ref. 38]; "will wail in despair," trans. [Ref. 37]), and they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.» (Matthew 24:30)

In the Bible, a sign – the ancient Hebrew ʾôt (אוֹת) – is a visible phenomenon "that contains a hidden meaning, which is perceived through observing its visible, outward aspect" [Ref. 36, p. 500]. It demonstrates the direct intervention of the Almighty in human affairs, calling people to take notice [Ref. 9, p. 32].

According to Scripture, this supernatural phenomenon results from God's intervention and has the character of a miracle. "How great are his signs, how mighty his wonders!" (Daniel 4:3; in the Hebrew Bible,  Daniel 3:33). Such a special sign most often precedes, and sometimes accompanies or concludes, a significant moment in history.

For example, before the Exodus from Egypt, Yahweh gave Moses extraordinary signs in order to convince the people of Israel of his divine commission. His staff was turned into a serpent and back again; his hand became leprous and was then healed; and water poured onto the ground became blood (Exodus 4:1–9, 28–31).

“In the broader context of the ancient Near Eastern worldview, signs were equivalent to distinguishing marks” [Ref. 28, p. 681]. Thus, the Day of the Lord is preceded by the literal darkening of the sun and the moon (Joel 2:31), accompanied by real apocalyptic signs in heaven – blood, fire, and columns of smoke (v. 30) – as well as «terrors and great signs from heaven» (Luke 21:11). For this reason, heavenly signs in the Bible are consistently associated with decisive moments in the history of salvation.

Thus, in both the Old and the New Testaments, signs serve as heralds of God's decisive intervention in history. For example, after the Flood, Elohim set the rainbow as the sign of the covenant (Genesis 9:13–16). At times, a person may also serve as God's sign: Ezekiel (Ezekiel 24:24), the virgin Mary (Isaiah 7:14), and Jonah (Matthew 12:38–40).    

5. The  Sequence  of  Events

The Teacher informed His disciples about the mysterious Sign marking the end of the evil generation and His return (Matthew 24:30). What mysterious phenomenon, visible in the heavens, did He have in mind when He spoke of it? Many Christians believe that the Son of Man Himself, appearing on the clouds, is that very sign [Refs. 10–13, 31], just as the prophet Ezekiel, Isaiah and his children, the virgin Mary, or Jonah served as signs.

However, Scripture states that it is not the Lord Himself who appears first, but rather that a particular Sign appears in the sky: «Then will appear the Sign ... in heaven» (Matthew 24:30a), and only afterward will everyone see the Son (v. 30c). This extraordinary heavenly sign is not yet the Parousia itself. The very order in which Jesus presents these events reveals the following sequence, separated by intervals of time:

1. A heavenly astronomical sign from God will appear.
   
   
2. Upon seeing this Sign in heaven, all the tribes of the earth will mourn (to sob). Their mourning will be caused by fear of the coming judgment, not by seeing the Savior Himself, whom they will behold later.
   
   3. Only afterward will all nations see Him.

This sequence is seen even more clearly in the three consecutive verses of Luke 21:25–27).

a) «And there will be signs (awesome signs) in sun and moon and stars» (Luke 21:25a);

b) «people fainting (collapsing lifeless) with fear and with foreboding of what is coming (the calamities that are coming) on the world» (Luke 21:26a);

c) «And then (they) will see the Son of Man» (Luke 21:27a).       

Thus, Luke preserves exactly the same sequence: first the heavenly signs, then the fear of the nations, and only afterward the manifestation of the Son of Man.

Luke 21:28 and Matthew 24:33 confirm this same sequence. After listing the cosmic signs ("the sun will be darkened," "the moon will not give its light," "the stars will fall from heaven," Matthew 24:29–30), the Lord says: «So also, when you see all these things, you know that he is near, at the very gates» (Matthew 24:33; “When you see all this coming to pass... know that He is already near, at the door.” trans. [Ref. 37]).

Thus, Jesus Himself distinguishes between the appearance of these signs and His coming. If, after these signs appear, He is still «near, at the very gates,» then the signs themselves cannot be identical with His appearing.

First come the signs of truth, one after another, separated in time; then come Christ's return and the resurrection of the dead, as testified by the early Christian document Didache (late first to early second century A.D.), also known as The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles [Ref. 36]. 

"And then the signs of the truth will appear: first, the sign of an opening in heaven; then the sign of the sound of the trumpet; and third, the resurrection of the dead" (Didache 16:6). Then, "the world will see the Lord coming upon the clouds of heaven" (16:8).      

Interestingly, the Didache presents a sequence remarkably similar to  that  found in the apostolic writings: first, the opening (or breach) in the  heavenly expanse (Didache 16:6; Fig. 2), second, a phenomenon that  may be perceived visually as the falling of the "stars" (Mark 13:24–25).

 

This phenomenon and the Savior's subsequent triumphant return  (Didache 16:8; Mark 13:26) are separated by an interval of time, as  indicated by the words, "he is near" (Matthew 24:33; trans. [Ref. 35]).

To determine the place of these signs within the overall biblical chronology, it is necessary to compare Christ's words with Daniel's prophecy concerning the final seven-year period (Daniel's seventieth week) and to examine the structure of this final seven-year period. Scripture indicates a clear division of this period into two halves of three and a half years each. In Matthew 24:21, the Lord describes precisely the second half of the seven-year period, calling it the "Great Tribulation". Accordingly, the expression «the tribulation of those days» in verse 29 refers to the close of the first half of this seven-year period.

 

Thus, the cosmic signs serve as a prophetic dividing line: they become the final climax of the first three and a half years while simultaneously announcing the beginning of the Great Tribulation – the second three and a half years. This is confirmed by an analysis of Luke 21:28 together with the context of the Old Testament eschatological prophecies.

Some interpreters identify the Sign in heaven as a brilliantly shining cross (John Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem, Origen), or as the face of Christ Himself. Others suggest that the image of the Heavenly Jerusalem or an enormous radiant figure of the Son of Man walking upon the clouds will appear in the sky.

Still others have proposed different possibilities: a banner, lightning, an extraordinary star, the resurrection of the dead, the glory of God appearing within a "black hole," an exceptionally brilliant light, an advance host of angels with trumpets and a flaming sword, and other interpretations [Refs. 3, 10–19, 34].

Each of these proposals is interesting in its own way and possesses a certain internal logic. Nevertheless, none of them receives sufficient support directly from the biblical text. For that reason, it is worthwhile to examine the Scriptures themselves once again with great care.   

6. Changes  in  the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars

Some interpreters expect that the Sign will be a supernatural image or the appearance of the angelic host. However, the biblical texts allow us to consider another line of inquiry into the nature of the mysterious Sign in heaven. In ancient times, "historical events were believed to be associated with corresponding phenomena in nature" [Ref. 28, p. 82].

 

"Before Christ visibly comes to the earth, natural signs will occur in heaven and on earth" [Ref. 40, p. 224]. This is logical, for the Creator of all things – including the heavenly signs – created the natural objects themselves.

«And God said, 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens ... and let them be for signs» ('special signs,' trans. [Ref. 26])." (Genesis 1:14). Thus, from the very beginning of biblical history, the heavenly lights were given by God not only a natural function but also the purpose of serving as signs.

"According to Genesis 1:14–19, the Sun and the Moon, as well as the stars, are to give light to the earth, mark the seasons, and serve as 'signs'" [Ref. 36, p. 118]. This refers to eclipses or other unusual celestial phenomena [Ref. 20, p. 43]. Accordingly, prophecy foretells that extraordinary darkening of the heavenly lights will precede the coming of Yom Adonai.  

«The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and awesome Day of the LORD comes.» (Joel 2:31). This passage refers not merely to a symbol of God's judgment, as proposed by the authors of Ref. 27 [p. 1122], nor simply to an allegory, as maintained by preterists [Ref. 31, p. 178], but to real physical phenomena. 

Jesus likewise warns His listeners by listing three significant phenomena: «And there will be signs (there will appear signs) in sun and moon and stars.» (Luke 21:25a). The authors of Ref. 12 describe these as "cosmic signs" (p. 267). The apostle John likewise saw these natural apocalyptic warning phenomena in his vision: «the sun became black as sackcloth, the full moon became like blood.» (Revelation 6:12). 

A celestial body—the so-called Star of Bethlehem – served as the sign that guided the wise men from the East to the birthplace of the Messiah, leading them to the town of Bethlehem (Matthew 2:2, 7, 9). Should we therefore conclude that it is not the cross, the Heavenly Jerusalem, or the face of Christ, but rather these three astronomical signs that will announce His coming? 

It is tempting to answer "yes," but the more accurate answer is "no." First, the Teacher spoke of one Sign of His return, not three (Matthew 24:30). Second, the three signs mentioned in Luke 21:25, including the darkening of the heavenly bodies, are difficult to reconcile with Jesus' subsequent words:

 «For as the lightning (possibly "the radiance of the sun," [Ref. 3, p. 467]) flashes and lights up the sky from one side to the other ("illuminates everything," trans. [Refs. 35, 38]), so will the Son of Man be in his day.» (Luke 17:24; Matthew 24:27).

Here the text speaks not of darkness but, on the contrary, of flashes of light and brilliant radiance. Some scholars point out that the Greek word ἀστραπή (astrapē) used here is etymologically associated with the concept of brilliant light. This observation is supported by Luke 11:36, where the same Greek root is used in the phrase, «as when a lamp with its rays gives you light.» Furthermore, in Matthew 24:30 the verb translated «will appear» (referring to the Sign) is derived from a Greek verb meaning "to shine" [Ref. 21].

Third, the changes in the light of the sun, the moon, and the stars will indeed occur (Luke 21:25; Revelation 6:12; Joel 2:31). Nevertheless, there are no compelling biblical grounds for identifying them with the one unique Sign of which Christ speaks to His disciples in Matthew 24:30.

Since the mysterious heavenly Sign is to be a manifestation of God's power, it should bear the character of a miracle (Daniel 4:3), becoming an event of worldwide significance – majestic, extraordinary, awe-inspiring, and fear-inducing (Exodus 4:1–9; 7:3; Joel 2:30; Matthew 12:38–40).

Numerous flashes of light in the sky (2 Peter 3:10) will be seen, and «all the tribes of the earth will mourn in despair» (Matthew 24:30; trans. [Ref. 35]; "will cry out in fear and confusion," trans. [Ref. 38]). This naturally raises two questions: "Can we determine what Christ actually meant?" And what biblical evidence allows us to arrive at a sufficiently well-founded conclusion?".       

7. The  Immediate  Context

One of the principal analytical tools of exegesis is context – the portion of a text required to determine the specific meaning of a word or phrase. In particular, the immediate context makes it possible to establish the semantic connection between a given verse and the one preceding or following it [Ref. 22]. Using this interpretive principle, let us consider verse 29 while taking into account the evangelist's terminology. 

«Immediately after the tribulation of those days (after the distress of those days), the (1) sun will be darkened, and the (2) moon will not give its light (will not shine), and the (3) stars will fall from heaven, and the (4) powers (bodies) of the heavens will be shaken» (Matthew 24:29; the words in parentheses are explanatory renderings from modern translations).

It is then that the Sign of the Son of Man will appear (Matthew 24:30). We have already seen that the changes in the light of the sun, moon, and stars are not themselves the signals of the Second Coming, as some suppose. Likewise, the shaking of the heavenly powers (bodies) and the falling of the stars cannot be the Sign of verse 30, since they precede it.

Could it be, then, that the consequence of the falling celestial bodies described in verse 29 – "the stars will fall from heaven" – is itself the Sign mentioned in verse 30: «Then ^rwill appear in heaven the sign of the Son of Man»? Moreover, this Sign will appear at night (2 Peter 3:10; 1 Thessalonians 5:2; Amos 5:18–20). 

Let us examine this possibility carefully. What astronomical objects is Jesus referring to in Matthew 24:29? Clearly, He is not speaking of literal stars (Greek, ἀστήρ, – astēr), the enormous hydrogen-helium plasma bodies of immense mass and temperature. At the same time, neither is He referring to symbols or allegories, as preterist interpreters maintain, since the passage describes an actual physical phenomenon.

To understand Matthew 24:29, one should bear in mind that "stars were never an object of scientific interest in the Bible. The term was applied to any luminous heavenly bodies except the sun and the moon" [Ref. 32, p. 616]. 

Furthermore, "in ancient Hebrew, as in ancient Greek, any bright object in the sky was called a 'star.' This category also included 'falling stars' – meteorites" [Ref. 41, p. 616]. In modern scientific terminology, these are more accurately called meteor bodies, or simply meteors.  

We therefore arrive at a well-founded conclusion: the expression «the stars will fall from heaven» in verse 29 essentially refers to "falling stars" [Ref. 41]. In earlier times – and occasionally even today – this term has been used to describe bright, short-lived flashes in the night sky. Such phenomena were believed to result from stars breaking loose from the firmament, which the ancients regarded as solid [Refs. 27, p. 552; 35, p. 1401]. 

In reality, these flashes are produced when sporadic meteor bodies enter the Earth's atmosphere. These are extremely small solid particles, typically having a mass of less than one milligram, a diameter of less than one millimeter, and atmospheric entry velocities ranging from approximately 11 to 73 km/s.       

In the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, at altitudes between approximately 130 km and 60 km, collisions with atmospheric molecules rapidly heat these cosmic particles. Most particles larger than about 10 μm completely vaporize through sublimation – in other words, they effectively "burn up." Micrometeorites with diameters smaller than roughly 4 μm pass through the atmosphere with little or no measurable loss of mass. 

The sublimation of meteor bodies is accompanied by luminous emission and ionization of atmospheric gases, allowing an observer at night to see the meteor as a narrow luminous trail (scientifically termed a meteor trail). These trails vary in length, color, and brightness. The ablation of meteors also produces tiny spherical particles ranging from approximately 1 to 100 μm in diameter, commonly known as meteor dust. 

These physical processes are highly significant for our study because they help determine whether the heavenly Sign described by Christ could correspond to an actual natural astronomical phenomenon.  

Therefore, if in verse 29 the Lord Jesus uses the expression "falling stars" to refer to meteor bodies, then one of the most consistent explanations of the heavenly Sign mentioned in verse 30 may be the radiant. This distinctive feature – or, more precisely, this Sign – would appear in the sky as the result of the massive influx and sublimation of cosmic particles.

These particles would produce a powerful manifestation of God's glory, forming awesome fiery rays that would visually point toward the dark "opening" of the radiant. The resulting luminous phenomenon would resemble lightning, yet would endure far longer than an ordinary electrical discharge, which illuminates the sky only for a brief instant from one horizon to the other.

"Obviously, by the stars falling to the earth one should understand not the sun or the planets, which are larger than our earth, but meteorites" [Ref. 34, p. 376] – or, more precisely, meteor bodies. But why does this heavenly light blaze forth in the evening, illuminate everything throughout the night, and then fade away by morning?   

What kind of magnificent cosmic phenomenon could produce a light that, once kindled, would illuminate the entire sky from one horizon to the other, just as the Lord Jesus Christ foretold?

8. The  Radiant  of  the  Meteor  Stream

As the Earth travels along its orbit at a velocity of approximately 30 km/s, it periodically passes through swarms of solid cosmic particles, most commonly through clouds of dust left by long-disintegrated comets. Similar phenomena have been observed throughout history, although their intensity has been incomparably lower than that anticipated by biblical prophecy.

During that time, countless "falling stars" will appear across the night sky, each leaving behind a luminous trail. In astronomical terminology, such an event is classified as a meteor storm when the Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR) exceeds 10,000.  Owing to the effect of perspective, particles traveling along nearly parallel trajectories and burning up in the atmosphere appear to originate from a single "opening" – a small dark region in the sky (Fig. 3). 
 

This region of the celestial sphere, from which all visible meteor trails –  or their backward extensions – appear to diverge, is called the radiant  of  a meteor stream, from the Latin radians, meaning "emitting rays." 

This phenomenon was first scientifically documented by the American  astronomer Denison Olmsted, who observed the great Leonid  meteor  storm on November 12, 1833. In later years, the radiants of  the  Lyrids, Perseids, Geminids, Draconids, and other meteor  streams were identified.

At night, the radiant occupies a definite position on the celestial sphere  among the constellations, specifically within the constellation from which the meteor bodies appear to arrive, participating in the daily apparent rotation of the stars. During the last days, under a cloudless night sky, all the peoples of the earth will witness this phenomenon. In the Northern Hemisphere, the radiant itself, together with its center, will be visible, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere people will observe the luminous glow spreading across the sky as a result of countless meteor flashes.

The brilliance of this unique nocturnal display increases with the Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR) – the number of visible meteors per hour. The higher this astronomical Sign rises above the horizon, the more meteor trails become visible within a given period of time. Its radiance will become so intense that, even at night, everything will be visible almost as in daylight, with objects acquiring three-dimensional form through light and shadow.  

Therefore, if in verse 29 the Lord Jesus refers to meteor bodies as "falling stars," then the radiant of the meteor stream itself becomes the heavenly Sign described in verse 30. This distinctive Sign will appear – more precisely, it will come into being – as the result of the massive influx of cosmic particles into the Earth's atmosphere. The result will be a luminous phenomenon resembling lightning, yet lasting incomparably longer than the instantaneous flash that illuminates the sky from one horizon to the other.

The extraordinary majesty of this apocalyptic spectacle – the heavens weeping with fiery tears of meteors throughout the night – will overwhelm humanity with the Great Tribulation (Matthew 24:21, 30) and with profound fear (Luke 21:26). Hair will stand on end, and faces will grow pale. As the prophet foretold: «Before them peoples are in anguish; all faces grow pale.» (Joel 2:6).

The Lord further foretells that, at the sight of the calamity drawing near, «people fainting (losing consciousness) with fear and with foreboding (of the disasters) of what is coming on the world. For the powers of the heavens will be shaken» (Luke 21:26;  that is, will begin to move).

In this connection, it is worth examining separately the widespread interpretation that identifies the Sign of the Son of Man (Matthew 24:30a) with the Parousia itself (24:30c). A careful reading of the text, however, shows that the Gospel consistently distinguishes these two events in both time and sequence. The Sign in heaven is not Christ Himself, but the majestic cosmic herald of His appearing.

Just as, at the time of the First Coming, the Star of Bethlehem served only as a guide pointing to the birth of the Child and was not the Messiah Himself, so in the last days the radiant of the meteor stream will become the awesome astronomical Sign that precedes the appearance of the King of kings. 

At the dawn of the present age, the guiding star served as the Sign of the First Coming of Jesus Christ – a sign of hope. In the last days, the falling stars will announce the Second Coming of the Savior, the King, and the Judge; they will serve as a sign of judgment.

By keeping watch, one may behold the majesty and power of God – the star (the radiant) – in the evening, throughout the night, and at dawn, just like the unexpected return of the master of the house (Mark 13:35). Like a net cast over the earth, this phenomenon will come «... like a trap. For it will come (overtake, fall upon) upon all who dwell on the face of the whole earth» (Luke 21:34, 35).   

9. The  Broader  Context

Can the foregoing interpretation be confirmed by the broader context of Matthew 24? Yes. Let us turn, for example, to Matthew 24:27: «For as the lightning comes (flashes forth, shining) from the east and shines as far as the west ("illuminates even the west with its light," trans. [Ref. 38]), so will be the coming" (return) of the Son of Man.»

The expression "from the east ... to the west" in biblical language signifies the universality of a phenomenon; it "encompasses the whole expanse of the earth" [Ref. 7, p. 169]. Consequently, the Lord Jesus is evidently drawing attention not to the atmospheric electrical discharge itself, but to its radiance, since an atmospheric electrical discharge is confined to the region of a thundercloud and cannot illuminate "the whole expanse of the earth."

What is meant is an intense flash, "as the lightning comes" – that is, the distinctive effect it produces: a radiance that illuminates the heavens. This understanding is confirmed by the parallel passage in the Gospel of Luke, where the Greek word ἀστραπή (astrape) denotes bright light or radiance.

«For as the lightning" (astrape) flashes and lights up the sky from one side to the other" ("illuminates everything", trans. [Ref. 35, 38]), so will the Son of Man be in his day» (Luke 17:24). Here the atmospheric electrical discharge serves as "a testimony to the worldwide scope of Christ's return" [Ref. 27, p. 630].

If the foregoing conclusion is correct, then a similar luminous effect ("the radiance of the sun," according to [Ref. 6, p. 389]) could also be produced by the massive influx of meteor bodies emerging from the "opening" in the night sky. Countless flashes of cosmic particles burning up in the atmosphere would illuminate the entire landscape like the dawn spreading across the whole earth.

In that case, Luke 17:24 may be understood as describing a radiance that, like the sun, illuminates "the whole earth from one end to the other" [Ref. 6]. Unlike an instantaneous atmospheric electrical discharge, however, the radiant continuously illuminates the earth's surface throughout a cloudless night.    

Another important observation follows from Luke's words: «but on the day when Lot went out from Sodom, fire and sulfur rained from heaven and destroyed them all (they all perished) – so will it be on the day when the Son of Man is revealed» (Luke 17:29–30).

In Matthew and Mark we read of the same astronomical phenomenon: "the stars will fall from heaven»  (Matthew 24:29; Mark 13:25), flashing like lightning (Luke 17:24).

When all these passages are considered together, they portray one and the same extraordinary heavenly phenomenon associated with fire, light, and the falling of objects from heaven. This naturally raises the question: are Luke, Matthew, and Mark describing different aspects of the same event?

If so, then the expression «fire and sulfur rained from heaven» (Luke 17:29) may be understood as describing the very same phenomenon that Matthew calls «the stars will fall from heaven» (Matthew 24:29). From a scientific perspective, this would correspond to the visible effect produced by the ablation of countless small meteor bodies. Even today, their appearance is commonly called a meteor shower or "shooting stars."  

In the biblical world, the closest ancient analogue to burning cosmic particles was the bright, rapid combustion of crystals of native sulfur – the so-called "burning stone" [Ref. 36]. Deposits of native sulfur were found in the Jordan Valley [Ref. 7]. 

Finely pulverized native sulfur possesses pyrophoric properties, that is, the ability to ignite spontaneously. In the absence of external heating, tiny crystals of native sulfur may ignite in air as a result of the exothermic oxidation process. For this reason, following the language of Moses (Genesis 19:24), Jesus Christ refers to the meteor storm as "sulfur." 

10. Fiery  and  Sulfurous  Showers

If the heavenly Sign is associated with the massive influx of small meteoroids, why do a number of ancient texts—for example, the Third Sibylline Book (3:691) – mention not only fire and sulfur, but also the fall of large stones?

 

In light of the proposed reconstruction, the future events will begin with the massive entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere. This naturally raises the question: must all of them be completely consumed before reaching the ground? Modern astronomy answers in the negative. Even while losing a significant portion of their mass through ablation during atmospheric entry and deceleration, some fragments survive.

 

    Ablation is the gradual loss of material from the surface of a cosmic body caused by extremely intense heating (up to approximately 3,000°C) and by the removal of molten material through the flow of superheated gases. After the fragmentation of a massive cosmic body, surviving fragments – ranging in mass from fractions of a gram to many tons, depending on the size of the original object – reach the Earth's surface. These fragments are called meteorites.        

 A large meteorite – or, more precisely, a meteoroid while still in flight – appearing as a fiery sphere with a long tail of incandescent gases and solid particles, is called a bolide (from the Greek word meaning "missile" or "throwing spear"; Fig. 4).

 

 The flight of a bolide, visible even in daylight, is usually accompanied by characteristic acoustic phenomena: a powerful roar, rumbling, whistling, crackling, and hissing.

Its descent ends with impact upon the Earth's surface and the formation of an impact crater. In most cases, however, the meteoroid disintegrates while still in the atmosphere under the combined effects of dynamic pressure (approximately 0.1–1 MPa) and thermal stress produced by aerodynamic heating (1,800°C – 3,000°C) during atmospheric deceleration.

The dazzling flash is followed by a loud explosive report and the fall of numerous small fragments. Planetary scientists refer to this final stage as a meteorite shower; in everyday language it is often described as a "star shower," a "stone shower," or a "fiery shower."    

Within the framework of the proposed hypothesis, this provides a possible way of understanding the description of the "fiery hail" in John's vision (Revelation 8:7). The point is not to identify these phenomena as identical, but rather to note the similarity in their visual appearance from the perspective of an observer on Earth. In particular, the seer witnessed the flight and atmospheric breakup of a bolide, describing it as «a great star fell from heaven, blazing like a torch» (v. 10).

This imagery corresponds remarkably well to the flight and fragmentation of a large meteoroid. The comparison is natural, since both a cosmic body before its atmospheric breakup and a "torch" burning in the wind produce a bright flickering light, tongues of flame, sparks, and smoke. A blazing cosmic body is capable of casting shadows from objects on the ground even during daylight, much as a brilliant lamp does at night.

Because of the intense infrared thermal radiation emitted during the flight of an exceptionally bright meteoroid, an observer on the ground experiences an intense sensation of heat, much like that produced by a blazing "torch". This physical characteristic makes the comparison especially vivid. Indeed, a bolide closely resembles a torch: it emits a brilliant flickering light, leaves behind a trail of smoke and sparks, and even produces perceptible thermal radiation.